Written by: Amy Xia

Edited by: Orli Adamski

In 1878, Scandinavian archaeologist Hjalmar Stolpe discovered a grave, later named Bj 581, in Birka, a historic Viking settlement in present-day Sweden. This discovery marked the beginning of a mistaken interpretation of the burial’s contents and the gender of its owner, a misconception that would persist for over 128 years. 

Due to a full set of weaponry, including swords, axes, arrows, knives, shields, and even two horses found alongside the body, archaeologists and researchers long assumed that the owner of the tomb was a legendary male warrior of the Viking Age. The grave also contained a full set of board gaming pieces, suggesting that the owner was a skilled military leader fluent in battle tactics and war strategies. The burial site’s luxurious set of grave goods was one of only two tombs discovered with a “full complement of weapons,” further emphasizing the elevated social status of the owner of Bj 581. It was also identified as one of the twenty wealthiest sites in Birka, among more than 1,100 excavated cemeteries.

The turning point arrived in 2017, when a group of scholars and researchers from Sweden discovered that this celebrated Viking warrior was indeed a woman, contrary to the previous century-long assumption of the warrior being a man. Using DNA analysis to examine genome sequences and mitochondrial DNA, researchers concluded that due to the absence of Y chromosomes, the unnamed warrior lying in one of Birka’s most significant tombs was biologically female. 

The case of the Bj 581 and its female warrior is an example of how interpretations of archaeological sites have been significantly and inevitably influenced by modern, stereotypical understandings of gender and its respective role in society. Rarely did anyone question the determination of Bj 581’s gender before 2017. However, since the discovery of two X chromosomes in the DNA analysis, the Swedish researchers who made the initial discovery have faced considerable pushback and criticisms toward the reliability of their findings. Instead of war artillery, weapons found accompanying the body were speculated to have been family heirlooms, and people began wondering if the presence of a great warrior’s possessions and equipment necessarily meant the owner of the tomb herself was a warrior. Is it not interesting that, because Bj 581 was female, her grave objects and burial goods were suspected of being family possessions meant to show her household’s or family’s social status, whereas if she had been male, no such questions would have been raised? Attributes of violence, warfare, strength, and power are automatically defaulted to the male gender. Thus, the appearance of armour and artillery led archaeologists—perhaps unconsciously—to make conclusions based on gendered assumptions. The backlash faced by these Swedish scholars upon publication of their results reminds us of the harm of gendered assumptions, even in the modern context, in archaeology. 

The warrior in Birka is not the only example of neglected women in history and archeology. One of the most successful pharaohs and one of the few female leaders in thousands of years of ancient Egyptian history, Hatshepsut brought considerable wealth and prosperity to her land through trade expeditions in approximately the ninth year of her reign, between 1488 and 1487 BCE. However, when one examines artistic depictions of this phenomenal female leader, even recognizing her as a woman becomes a challenge. Whether standing or seated, statues of Hatshepsut feature more masculine characteristics than feminine ones. Fake ceremonial beards, intentionally less pronounced chests, traditional male royal garments, royal headdresses as masculine symbols of monarchy, broad and strong shoulders, and a masculine physique disguise her feminine features, instead emphasizing masculine traits. 

What is even more noteworthy is that it was not the artisans’ idea to portray Hatshepsut as a young male. Hatshepsut herself demanded that artists depict her with more masculine features to legitimize her rule as pharaoh. She wanted to be viewed and remembered as a capable leader deserving of “the same respect as a male pharaoh.” When a qualified and accomplished female leader like Hatshepsut felt compelled to present herself androgynously to convey power and gain respect, she underscored how deeply and intrinsically legitimacy and authority in ancient Egypt were tied to masculine identity.

Comparing the case of Bj 581’s female warrior and Hatshepsut, we see a continuation of rigid gender perceptions that, unfortunately, remain constant throughout history. When Hatshepsut required artisans to depict her in ways that contradicted her physical appearance in order to face fewer challenges to her sovereignty and legitimacy as pharaoh, we can view this as a compromise to the entrenched gender norms and expectations of ancient Egyptian society. Even as history progressed and dynasties rose and fell, cultural gender associations that led modern scientists to presume a masculine identity for someone who became commemorated for leading wars remained constant. Perhaps had there been domestic items like jewelry, mirrors, textiles, and personal adornments, it would have been easier for researchers to determine the femininity of a burial site’s owner, since these items are, in fact, still significant indicators of female tomb owners. 

Although cultures have associated violence, physical capabilities, and wars with men for centuries, it is important to realize how these cultural associations inherently came from social interpretations of gender roles. This means these perceptions of genders can never become definitive. As “cultural construct[s],” these roles are never meant to limit the abilities of different genders. Contrary to modern-day suppositions about patriarchal societies during the Viking era, female warriors who defied traditional gendered stereotypes did exist, not only in archaeological sites like Bj 581 but also in historical accounts, records, and legends. For instance, in Gesta Danorum, the work of the Danish historian and theologian Saxo Grammaticus, the female warrior and shieldmaiden Lagertha is celebrated as a victorious fighter in war and a leader in the military. This, alongside numerous other examples of women wielding influence and power in ancient societies, demonstrates how gendered expectations were far more flexible than often assumed. For instance, back in 60CE, Boudicca, the queen of ancient Britain, was distinctly remembered for her leadership of a revolt against Roman occupation. Her capability to fight alongside thousands of soldiers as the commander illustrates how feminine power extends towards the military even under a patriarchal society. In ancient Persia, Artemisia I of Caria, the queen of Halicarnassus, served as a naval commander under Xerxes I during the Greco-Persian Wars. Defying conventional gendered assumptions, Artemisia, with her courage and wisdom, was praised by Greek historian Herodotus as the “tactician of the highest order.” Moreover, similar to the owner of Bj 581, Fu Hao, the consort of King Wu Ding of the Shang Dynasty, was also commemorated by the burial of an extraordinary number of weapons and armour in her tomb. A leader of multiple military campaigns, with her feats recorded in oracle bone inscriptions, Fu Hao gives archeological evidence of a woman wielding substantial military authority, contrary to rigid expectations of gender roles. 

These examples of women exercising their power beyond masculine boundaries reveal that gender roles in ancient times were far more fluid than typically supposed; modern-day interpretations that assume traditional gendered stereotypes turn out to be dangerous in confining authority to the male sex. The rediscovery of women like the Birka warrior, Hatshepsut, and many others urges us to confront the limitations of our own assumptions. By recognizing the overlooked possibilities of feminine power, we acknowledge the complexity of these historical records and simultaneously challenge modern stereotypical gendered frameworks that continue to influence interpretations today. In doing so, we pay tribute to many remarkable women, unnamed and unseen, like Bj 581, who defied expectations and redefined power in their own time.